Gradients of neurotransmitter receptor expression in the macaque cortex.

Dynamics and functions of neural circuits depend on interactions mediated by receptors. Therefore, a comprehensive map of receptor organization across cortical regions is needed. In this study, we used in vitro receptor autoradiography to measure the density of 14 neurotransmitter receptor types in 109 areas of macaque cortex. We integrated the receptor data with anatomical, genetic and functional connectivity data into a common cortical space. We uncovered a principal gradient of receptor expression per neuron. This aligns with the cortical hierarchy from sensory cortex to higher cognitive areas. A second gradient, driven by serotonin 5-HT1A receptors, peaks in the anterior cingulate, default mode and salience networks. We found a similar pattern of 5-HT1A expression in the human brain. Thus, the macaque may be a promising translational model of serotonergic processing and disorders. The receptor gradients may enable rapid, reliable information processing in sensory cortical areas and slow, flexible integration in higher cognitive areas.

A calcium fluorescence assay for quantification of cholinergic receptor activity of clinical drugs in serum - comparison with radioactive methods.

A new approach is described for quantifying cholinergic receptor activation status human blood samples, based on M1 receptor-driven mobilization of intracellular calcium stores. The assay identifies anticholinergic as well as agonist cholinergic receptor activity. As a cell-based procedure, the assay shares the high efficiency of recently developed M1 receptor binding protocols, but differs from the latter in relying on fluorescence rather than radioactivity measurements. The assay targets a true functional effect insofar as it reflects a time-dependent process of net changes in activation of cholinergic receptors. Results from experiments with M1-expressing CHO cells exposed to a fluorogenic dye and the standard cholinergic agonist carbachol revealed the assay's ability to isolate pure agonist effects of clinical compounds as well as the net effects of serum containing agonist and antagonist factors. The new protocol thus provides two additional quantitative indices of cholinergic receptor activity in human serum, namely pure agonistic effects and net agonist/antagonist effects. As such, it could constitute a very useful addition to efforts to quantify global cholinergic status in human serum in various clinical conditions. By relying on fluorescence measures it should also prove much more accessible than radioactivity-based protocols.

Acquired Idiopathic Generalized Anhidrosis (AIGA) and Its Complications: Implications for AIGA as an Autoimmune Disease.

Acquired idiopathic generalized anhidrosis (AIGA) is a rare disorder in which systemic anhidrosis/hypohidrosis occurs without causative dermatological, metabolic or neurological disorder. Most cases of AIGA have been reported in Asia, especially in Japan, but there have been only a few reports in Europe and the United States. Severe AIGA may result in heatstroke and can reduce quality of life due to restriction of exercise and outdoor works. AIGA is often accompanied by cholinergic urticaria (CholU), and it is thought that AIGA and CholU with anhidrosis/hypohidrosis belong to the same spectrum of the disease. However, the pathophysiology of AIGA has not yet been clarified. Decreased expression of cholinergic receptor M3 on the epithelial cells of eccrine sweat glands is often accompanied by T cell infiltration around eccrine apparatus, suggesting an immunological mechanism of disordered perspiration. AIGA is occasionally associated with various complications indicative of autoimmune disorders. The association of autoimmune complications further suggests that AIGA is an autoimmune disorder. Studies on complications may lead to a better understanding of the pathophysiology of AIGA.

Evaluation of commercially available antibodies and fluorescent conotoxins for the detection of surface ganglionic acetylcholine receptor on the neuroblastoma cell line, IMR-32 by flow cytometry.

Commercially available antibodies that bind to the human muscle acetylcholine receptor (ACHR) have been validated previously for flow cytometric use (Keefe et al., 2009; Leite et al., 2008; Lozier et al., 2015). Despite a multitude of commercially available antibodies to other nicotinic ACHRs, validation in a wide variety of immunoassay formats is lacking; when studied, a large proportion of these antibodies have been deemed not fit for most research purposes (Garg and Loring, 2017). We have recently described a flow cytometric immunomodulation assay for the diagnosis of Autoimmune Autonomic Ganglionopathy (AAG) (Urriola et al., 2021) that utilises the monoclonal antibody mab35(Urriola et al., 2021) which is specific for ganglionic ACHR (gnACHR) that contain α3 subunits (Vernino et al., 1998). Other fluorescent ligands for α3-gnACHR have not been validated for flow cytometric use. We investigated 7 commercially sourced antibodies and 3 synthetic fluorescent novel conotoxins purported to specifically bind to the extracellular domains of the gnACHR, and compared the results to staining by mab35, using flow cytometry with the neuroblastoma cell line IMR-32. We also evaluated the degree of non-specific binding by depleting the cell membrane of the relevant acetylcholine receptor with a pre-incubation step involving the serum from a patient with Autoimmune Autonomic Ganglionopathy containing pathogenic antibodies to the ganglionic acetylcholine receptor. None of the assessed conotoxins, and only one antibody (mab35) was found to perform adequately in flow cytometric staining of the native ganglionic acetylcholine receptor.

The disassembly of the neuromuscular synapse in high-fat diet-induced obese male mice.

OBJECTIVE: A sustained high fat diet in mice mimics many features of human obesity. We used male and female Non-Swiss albino mice to investigate the impact of short and long-term high-fat diet-(HFD)-induced obesity on the peripheral neuromuscular junction (NMJ) and whether obesity-related synaptic structural alterations were reversible after switching obese mice from HFD to a standard fat diet (SD). METHODS: HFD-induced obese and age-matched control mice fed SD were used. We carried out in vivo time lapse imaging to monitor changes of synapses over time, quantitative fluorescence imaging to study the regulation of acetylcholine receptor number and density at neuromuscular junctions, and high resolution confocal microscope to study structural alterations in both the pre- and postsynaptic apparatus. RESULTS: Time-lapse imaging in vivo over a 9 month period revealed that NMJs of HFD obese male mice display a variety of obesity-related structural alterations, including the disappearance of large synaptic areas, significant reduction in the density/number of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChRs), abnormal distribution of AChRs, high turnover rate of AChRs, retraction of axons from lost postsynaptic sites, and partially denervated synapses. The severity of these synaptic alterations is associated with the duration of obesity. However, no substantial alterations were observed at NMJs of age-matched HFD obese female mice or male mice fed with a standard or low fat diet. Intriguingly, when obese male mice were switched from HFD to a standard diet, receptor density and the abnormal pattern of AChR distribution were completely reversed to normal, whereas lost synaptic structures were not restored. CONCLUSIONS: These results show that the obese male mice are more vulnerable than female mice to the impacts of long-term HFD on the NMJ damage and provide evidence that diet restriction can partially reverse obesity-related synaptic changes.

Complex Correlations Between Desmin Content, Myofiber Types, and Innervation Patterns in the Human Extraocular Muscles.

Purpose: To investigate whether the distribution of intermediate filament protein desmin is related to the different patterns of innervation in the human extraocular muscles (EOMs). Methods: EOM samples were analyzed with immunohistochemistry using antibodies against desmin, vimentin, different myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms, and fetal and adult acetylcholine receptor (AChR) subunits. Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) were identified with α-bungarotoxin or with antibodies against neurofilament and synaptophysin. Results: Desmin was present in the vast majority of myofibers, but it was weakly present or absent in a limited area in the close vicinity of the single en plaque NMJs in less than half of these myofibers. Desmin was either present or lacking in MyHCsto/I myofibers displaying multiple en grappe endings but present in MyHCsto/I myofibers receiving spiral nerve endings. In MyHCeom myofibers displaying multiterminal en plaque endings, desmin was either present or absent irrespective of AChR subunits or EOM layer. Vimentin did not substitute for the lack of desmin. Conclusions: The results indicate that the human EOMs have a more complex cytoskeletal organization than other muscles and suggest additional signalling mechanisms from the NMJs to the myofibers.

Evaluation of cholinergic functions in patients with Japanese encephalitis and Herpes simplex encephalitis.

Cognitive and memory impairment are related to cholinergic dysfunction and are important complications of viral encephalitis, In view of paucity of studies on cholinergic dysfunction in encephalitis, this study has been undertaken. We report acetyl choline esterase (AChE) and muscurinic 2 (M2) receptor levels in herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) and Japanese encephalitis (JE) patients, and correlate these with cognitive functions and MRI findings. Patients with JE and HSE were evaluated for consciousness, neurological and MRI findings, plasma AChE and M2 receptor levels on admission and after one year. Twenty-nine patients with JE and 23 with HSE were included. Admission AChE levels in JE (48.32 ±â€¯5.36 nmol/min/ml) and HSE (41.92 ±â€¯5.12 nmol/min/ml) were significantly lower compared with controls (70.50 ±â€¯8.30 nmol/min/ml). M2 receptor levels were also low in JE (4.52 ±â€¯0.56 ng/ml) and HSE (4.35 ±â€¯0.57 ng/ml) compared with controls (7.95 ±â€¯0.41 ng/ml). In JE, AChE activity (r = 0.43, p = 0.02) and M2 receptor levels (r = 0.43, p = 0.02) correlated with caudate involvement, and AChE activity (r = 0.76, p = 0.03) with Mini Mental State Examination ( MMSE) score. In HSE, M2 receptor levels (r = 0.53, p = 0.03) correlated with MMSE. The levels of AChE and M2 receptors increased at one year compared to the baseline, which was greater in JE than in HSE. Both AChE and M2 receptors were reduced in JE and HSE and correlated with cognition at one year. Recovery of these biomarkers was more in JE than HSE.

Abstinência à cocaína e suas consequências no sistema colinérgico muscarínico / Abstinencia a la cocaína y sus consecuencias en el sistema colinérgico muscarínico / Abstinence from cocaine and its consequences on the muscarinic cholinergic system

Uma das principais dificuldades enfrentadas na dependência à cocaína está relacionada aos sintomas de abstinência, como ansiedade, desejo e irritabilidade. Estes efeitos podem durar meses ou anos após a interrupção do consumo prolongado, fazendo com que o indivíduo volte a procurá-la. Os efeitos recompensadores da cocaína levam a alterações neurobiológicas do sistema mesocorticolímbico dopaminérgico, que se origina na área tegmental ventral e se projeta para o núcleo accumbens, e córtex pré-frontal, áreas intimamente ligadas ao desenvolvimento da dependência. Esses neurônios dopaminérgicos recebem estímulos dos neurônios colinérgicos que contribuem para os aspectos cognitivos da dependência. Devido à complexidade neurobilógica envolvida durante a abstinência, pouco se sabe sobre as alterações no sistema colinérgico muscarínico durante este período no encéfalo, objetivo deste estudo. Para tal, camundongos machos adultos Swiss-Webster foram submetidos à cocaína em padrão agudo em binge (3×30 mg/kg/dia) e cronicamente por escalonamento de dose em binge por 14 dias (3×15 mg/kg/dia nos dias 1-4; 3×20 mg/kg/dia nos dias 5-8; 3×25 mg/kg/dia nos dias 9-12; e 3×30 mg/kg/dia nos dias 13 e 14). A atividade locomotora de cada animal foi avaliada em campo aberto (CA), onde permaneceram no aparato por 60 minutos entre cada administração. Após o período de exposição os animais permaneceram 14 dias em abstinência, a fim de avaliar a ansiedade no labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE). Em seguida os animais foram eutaniasiados, sendo o córtex pré-frontal (CPF), o estriado e o hipocampo dissecados e armazenados a -80ºC para a análise dos receptores dopaminérgicos D1 e D2, receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos M1, M2, M3, M4 e M5 (mAChRs) e moléculas colinérgicas (acetilcolinesterase, AChE; colina acetiltransferase, ChAT e transportador vesicular de acetilcolina, VAChT) por Western Blotting (n=6). Os resultados comportamentais mostraram maior atividade locomotora nos animais tratados com cocaína no tratamento agudo ou crônico, quando comparado ao basal. Mais ainda, a sensibilização comportamental foi detectada a partir do segundo dia de administração de cocaína. No teste de LCE, realizado 14 dias após a interrupção da administração de cocaína, não foi observada diferença estatística entre os animais previamente expostos à cocaína e grupo controle. No CPF observou-se diminuição de D2R, M1 mAChRs e aumento M2 e M4 mAChRs no tratamento agudo; no tratamento crônico houve diminuição de M1 e M5 mAChRs e ChAT. No estriado observou-se aumento de D1R, M1 e M2 mAChRs, ChAT no tratamento agudo; e aumento D1R, VAChT, ChAT e diminuição D2R, M1 e M2 mAChRs no tratamento crônico. Já no hipocampo observou-se aumento de D1R, D2R, M2 mAChRs, VAChT e diminuição M1 mAChRs no tratamento agudo; e aumento de D1R, VAChT e diminuição D2R, M1 mAChRs no tratamento crônico. Nossos resultados mostram envolvimento de processo de neuroplasticidade, tanto no sistema dopaminérgico quanto no colinérgico muscarínico, em ambos os protocolos utilizados, mesmo após 14 dias de abstinência

Una de las dificultades enfrentadas en la dependencia de cocaína son los síntomas de abstinencia, como ansiedad, deseo y irritabilidad. Estos efectos pueden durar meses o años después de la interrupción del consumo prolongado, haciendo que el individuo vuelva a consumirlo. Los efectos recompensadores de la cocaína causa alteraciones neurobiológicas del sistema mesocorticolímbico dopaminérgico, que se origina en el área tegmental ventral y se proyecta hacia el núcleo accumbens y córtex pré-frontal, áreas íntimamente ligadas al desenvolvimiento de la dependencia. Esas neuronas dopaminérgicas reciben estímulos de neuronas colinérgicas la cual contribuyen para los aspectos cognitivos de la dependencia. Debido a la complejidad neurobiológica involucrada durante la abstinencia, poco se sabe sobre las alteraciones del sistema colinérgico muscarínico durante este periodo en el encéfalo, objetivo de este estudio. Por tanto, ratones adultos macho Swiss-Webster fueron sometidos a cocaína en dosis padrón agudo en binge (3×30 mg/kg/día) y crónicamente por escalonamiento de dosis en binge por 14 días (3×15 mg/kg/día en los días 1-4; 3×20 mg/kg/día en los días 5-8; 3×25 mg/kg/día en los días 9-12; y 3×30 mg/kg/día en los días 13 e 14). La actividad locomotora de cada animal fue evaluada en el test de campo abierto (CA), donde permanecieron por 60 minutos entre cada administración. Después del periodo de exposición los animales permanecieron 14 días de abstinencia, a fin de evaluar la ansiedad en el labirinto de cruz elevado (LCE). En seguida los animales fueron eutanasiados, donde el córtex pré-frontal (CPF), estriado y hipocampo fueron disecados y almacenados a -80ºC para analizar los receptores dopaminérgicos D1 e D2, receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos M1, M2, M3, M4 y M5 (mAChRs) y moléculas colinérgicas (acetilcolinesterasa, AChE; colina acetiltransferasa, ChAT y transportador vesicular de acetilcolina, VAChT) por Western Blotting (n=6). Los resultados comportamentales mostraron mayor actividad locomotora en los animales tratados con cocaína en tratamiento agudo y crónico, comparado al control. Por otra parte, la sensibilización comportamental fue detectado a partir de segundo día de administración de cocaína. En la prueba de LCE, realizado después de 14 días de interrupción de la administración de cocaína, no fue observado diferencia estadística entre los animales previamente expuestos a la cocaína y el grupo control. En CPF se observó disminución de D2R, M1 mAChRs y aumento de M2 y M4 mAChRs en tratamiento agudo; en el tratamiento crónico mostro disminución de M1 y M5 mAChRs y ChAT. En el estriado se observó aumento de D1R, M1 y M2 mAChRs, ChAT en el tratamiento agudo; aumento D1R, VAChT, ChAT y disminución de D2R, M1 y M2 mAChRs en el tratamiento crónico. Por último, en el hipocampo se observó aumento de D1R, D2R, M2 mAChRs, VAChT y disminución M1 mAChRs en el tratamiento agudo; aumento de D1R, VAChT y disminución D2R, M1 mAChRs en el tratamiento crónico. Nuestros resultados muestran envolvimiento de procesos de neuroplasticidad, tanto en el sistema dopaminérgico como el sistema colinérgico muscarínico, en ambos protocolos utilizados, después de 14 días de abstinencia

Effects of diazinon on the lymphocytic cholinergic system of Nile tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus).

Fish rearing under intensive farming conditions can be easily disturbed by pesticides, substances that have immunotoxic properties and may predispose to infections. Organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) are widely used in agricultural activities; however, the mechanism of immunotoxicity of these substances is unclear. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of diazinon pesticides (OPs) on the cholinergic system of immune cells as a possible target of OP immunotoxicity. We evaluated ACh levels and cholinergic (nicotinic and muscarinic) receptor concentration. Additionally, AChE activity was evaluated in mononuclear cells of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), a freshwater fish mostly cultivated in tropical regions around the world. The obtained results indicate that acute exposure to diazinon induces an increase in ACh concentration and a decrease in nAChR and mAChR concentrations and AChE activity in fish immune cells, This suggests that the non-neuronal lymphocytic cholinergic system may be the main target in the mechanism of OP immunotoxicity. This study contributes to the understanding of the mechanisms of immunotoxicity of pollutants and may help to take actions for animal health improvement.

Mediation of a glutamate antagonist, a NOS inhibitor and antioxidants with - SH groups on striatal dopamine release induced by clothianidin

Is Clothianidin is a neonicotinoid insecticide with selective action on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. The aim of this study was to determine if the administration of a glutamate antagonist (APV), a NOS inhibitor (L-NAME) or two antioxidants (glutathione, and dithiothreitol,) prevent the increase in the striatal dopamine levels induced by clothianidin, using the microdialysis technique in freely moving and conscious rats. Intrastriatal administration of clothianidin (3.5 mM) produced an increase in striatal dopamine levels of 2462 ± 627%, with respect to basal levels. Coadministration of 0.65 mM APV and 3.5 mM clothianidin generated an increase in extracellular dopamine levels of 1089 ± 243.5%, being this increase 55.7% lower than the generated by clothianidin alone. Coadministration of 0.1 mM L-NAME and 3.5 mM clothianidin generated a significant increase in extracellular dopamine levels of 836.5 ± 150.6%., this increase is 70% lower than the generated by clothianidin alone. Coadministration of 3.5 mM clothianidin in combination with 0.4 mM glutathione induced an increase in striatal dopamine levels of 465.6 ± 126.8% , indicating that the administration of glutathione results in an inhibition of 81% of the effect generated by the infusion of clothianidin alone. Administration of 3.5 mM clothianidin associated with 0.005 mM dithiothreitol induced an increase in extracellular dopamine levels in the striatum of 693.8 ± 117.8% with respect to basal levels, being this increase 72% lower that the generated by clothianidin alone. Our results suggest that the effect of clothianidin on striatal dopamine release can be reduced by the administration of a glutamate antagonist, a NOS inhibitor or antioxidants with –SH groups, which suppose a simple protection mechanism against the damage caused for clothianidin (AU)

La clotianidina es un insecticida neonicotinoide con actividad selectiva sobre los receptores de acetilcolina. El objetivo de este estudio es comprobar si un inhibidor de los receptores glutamatérgicvos (APV), un inhibidor de la óxido nítrico sintetasa (L-NAME) y dos antioxidantes como el glutatión y el dithiotreitol previene la liberación de dopamina inducida por la clotianidina, usando la técnica de microdiálisis en ratas conscientes y en libre movimiento. La administración intraestriatal de clothianidina (3.5 mM) produce un aumento de 2462 ± 627%, de los niveles estriatales de dopamina respecto a los niveles basales. La coadministracion de 0.65 mM de APV y 3.5 mM d clothianidina genera un a aumento de 1089 ± 243.5% de los niveles estriatales de dopamina, siendo este incremento 55.7% más bajo que el generado por la clotianidina sola. La Coadministration de.0,1 mM de L-NAMEy3.5 mM de clotianidina genera un aumento de 836.5 ± 150.6% de los nivelesextracelulares de dopamina, siendo este aumento un 55.7% más bajo que el generado por la clotianidina sola. La coadministracion of 3.5 mM clothianidina en combinación con 0.4 mM de glutatión induce un aumento de 465.6 ± 126.8% de los niveles estriatales de dopamina, indicando que la administración de glutatión provoca una inhibición del 81% del efecto generado por la infusión de clotianidina sola. La administración de 3.5 mM de clothianidinajunto con 0.005 mM de diithiothreitol induce un aumento de 693.8 ± 117.8% en los niveles extracelulares de dopamina en el estriado, siendo este incremento 72% más bajo que el generado por la clotianidina sola. Nuestros resultados sugieren que el efecto de la clotianidina sobre la liberación estriatal de dopamina pueden ser reducidos por la administración de un antagonista glutamatérgico, un ihibibidor de la NOS o por antioxidantes con grupo –SH, lo cualsupone un simple mecanismo de protección contra el daño causadopor la clotianidina (AU)

Utilidad de la identificación de los anticuerpos contra receptores de acetil colina para el diagnóstico de miastenia gravis / Utility of the identification of antibodies against acetylcholine receptors for the diagnosis of myasthenia gravis

INTRODUCCIÓN: la Miastenia Gravis es una enfermedad autoinmune, caracteriza por debilidad y fatiga muscular, es fluctuante en su sintomatología, aunado a ello existen dos formas generales de Miastenia, la presentación ocular y la generalizada. No todos los pacientes son seropositivos a la identificación de anticuerpos contra receptores de acetil colina (AChR-ab), estas características hacen que la confirmación diagnóstica sea un reto clínico, y se consideren diferentes pruebas diagnósticas. OBJETIVO: realizar una revisión, apreciación crítica y síntesis de la evidencia disponible sobre la validez y utilidad de la identificación de AChR-ab para el diagnóstico de Miastenia Gravis. METODOLOGÍA: la evaluación fue realizada de acuerdo con un protocolo definido a priori por el grupo desarrollador. Se realizó una búsqueda sistemática en MEDLINE, EMBASE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, LILACS y Google, sin restricciones de idioma, fecha de publicación y tipo de estudio. Las búsquedas electrónicas fueron hechas en septiembre de 2014 y se complementaron mediante búsqueda manual en bola de nieve y una consulta con expertos temáticos. La tamización de referencias se realizó por dos revisores de forma independiente y los desacuerdos fueron resueltos por consenso. La selección de estudios fue realizada mediante la revisión en texto completo de las referencias preseleccionadas, verificando los criterios de elegibilidad predefinidos. Las características y hallazgos de los estudios fueron extraídos a partir de las publicaciones originales. Se realizó un análisis estadístico descriptivo. RESULTADOS: Se identificó una revisión sistemática de análisis descriptivo que evalúa la identificación de AChR-ab, SFEMG, RNS, comparados con el diagnóstico clínico, de calidad media, con una calidad individual de los estudios baja predominantemente, también se identificaron dos estudios primarios de tipo cohortes prospectiva que evaluaron la misma comparación y uno de ellos (1992) comparó los diferentes test en pacientes con un resultado previo negativo, para estos estudios el riesgo global de sesgo fue bajo. La identificación de AChR-ab comparado con el diagnóstico clínico (características clínicas y prueba de respuesta a colinesterásicos) presenta una buena sensibilidad y especificad, que se encuentra en los siguientes rangos para MG 0.90 -0.96 y 0.99 respectivamente; para MO una sensibilidad y especificidad de 0.44-0.66 y 0.98 -0.99 respectivamente. La sensibilidad y especificad reportada para la SFEMG comparada con diagnóstico clínico (características clínicas y prueba de respuesta a colinesterásicos), se encuentra en los rangos de 86% - 93% y 63% - 83%, respectivamente, reportados para MO y Miastenia. Se evidencia en la literatura variabilidad en la sensibilidad ye especificidad, derivada del tipo de musculo y el electrodo usado, lo anterior no permitió realizar análisis combinados del efecto dada la alta heterogeneidad entre los estudios primarios. En el caso de la RNS, la sensibilidad y la especificidad se encuentran en los siguientes rangos, para MO 29% a 77% y 94%, y para MG 79% a 80% y 97%, para MO el rango es amplio debido a la alta heterogeneidad entre los estudios. En el caso de pacientes seronegativos (AChR-ab negativos), se reporta una sensibilidad para la SFEMG de 97% y para RNS de 66%. Cuando los pacientes son positivos ante la identificación de AChR-ab, la sensibilidad de la SFEMG y la RNS disminuye a 80% y 61% respectivamente. No se encontraron estudios que reportaran la sensibilidad y especificidad de otros anticuerpos como: MuSK, anti RLP4 y receptores de sodio. CONCLUSIONES: en pacientes con sospecha de Miastenia Gravis, la identificación de AChR-ab tiene una buena sensibilidad y especificidad, especialmente para los casos de Miastenia Generalizada. La electromiografía de fibra unitaria (SFEMG) reportó mejores rangos de sensibilidad y especificidad que la identificación de AChR-ab y la estimulación repetitiva del nervio (RNS), cuando se comparan con diagnóstico clínico. En el caso de pacientes seronegativos (AChR-ab negativos), la SFEMG, tuvo la mejor sensibilidad. No se encontraron estudios que reportaran la sensibilidad y especificidad de otros anticuerpos como: MuSK, anti RLP4 y receptores de sodio.(AU)

La denervación 5-HTérgica córtico-frontal induce cambios en la expresión de las subunidades alfa 4 y alfa 7 de los receptores de acetilcolina tipo nicotínico en la corteza prefrontal de la rata adulta / 5-HT denervation of the adult rat prefrontal cortex induces changes in the expression of ¦Á4 and ¦Á7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes

Introducción: Los receptores de la acetilcolina de tipo nicotínico (R-Ach-n) son expresados ampliamente en diferentes regiones del cerebro. Particularmente, la conformación de los subtipos α4β2 y la α7 ha sido involucrada con la organización de diferentes tipos de memoria. Además, debido a su localización, estos pueden controlar la liberación de diferentes tipos de neurotransmisores, así como su participación en la plasticidad sináptica. Métodos: Se conformaron 3 grupos de trabajo, un grupo experimental (E), un grupo control (C) y un grupo testigo (T). Al grupo E se le realizó la lesión farmacológica por vía estereotáxica en la región anteroventral del núcleo del rafe dorsal (NRD) con 1μ/μl de 5,7-dihidroxitriptamina. Al grupo C, se le sometió a cirugía y se le aplicó la solución vehículo y finalmente el grupo T no recibió ningún tratamiento; 20 días después de la cirugía, los animales de los 3 grupos fueron sacrificados por decapitación para el análisis de la expresión de las subunidades, α4 y α7 de los R-Ach-n mediante la técnica de biología molecular. Resultados: La denervación 5-HTérgica a la CPF de la rata modifica la expresión de los receptores α4 y α7 de manera diferencial. La expresión de las subunidades α4 se incrementa, mientras que las subunidades α7 disminuyen. Conclusión: Las diferencias de expresión que tuvieron las 2 subunidades podrían deberse a la localización que presentan. La subunidad α4 se localiza en sitios post sinápticos y podría estar relacionada con cambios post sinápticos adaptativos, en tanto que la de la α7 se localiza en sitios presinápticos, por lo que la lesión y eliminación de fibras 5-HTérgicas en la CPF provoca su disminución (AU)

Introduction: Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are widely expressed throughout several brain regions. Formation of the α4β2 and α7 subtypes in particular is involved in the organisation of different types of memory. Furthermore, due to their location, these receptors can control the release of various types of neurotransmitters and contribute to synaptic plasticity. Methods: Rats were divided into three groups, an experimental group (E), a sham-operated group, (S) and an intact group (T). In group E, stereotactic guidance was used to induce a chemical lesion with 1 μ/μL of 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) in the anteroventral part of the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN). In the sham-operated group (S), animals underwent surgery including delivery of the same excipient solution to the same site. The intact group (T) received no treatment whatsoever. Twenty days after surgery, animals in all groups were euthanised by decapitation to evaluate the expression of α4 and α7 nAChRs by means of molecular biology techniques. Results: 5-HT denervation of the rat PFC differentially modified the expression of α4 and α7 receptors: while α4 receptor expression increased, α7 expression decreased. Conclusion: Expression differences observed between the two subtypes may be due to their separate locations. The α4 subtype is found in postsynaptic locations and may be related to adaptive changes in postsynaptic cells, while the location of α7 is presynaptic. This explains why the lesion and the elimination of 5-HT fibres in the CPF would cause a decrease in α7 expression (AU)

Synaptic defects in type I spinal muscular atrophy in human development.

Childhood spinal muscular atrophy is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disorder caused by alterations in the Survival Motor Neuron 1 gene that triggers degeneration of motor neurons within the spinal cord. Spinal muscular atrophy is the second most common severe hereditary disease of infancy and early childhood. In the most severe cases (type I), the disease appears in the first months of life, suggesting defects in fetal development. However, it is not yet known how motor neurons, neuromuscular junctions, and muscle interact in the neuropathology of the disease. We report the structure of presynaptic and postsynaptic apparatus of the neuromuscular junctions in control and spinal muscular atrophy prenatal and postnatal human samples. Qualitative and quantitative data from confocal and electron microscopy studies revealed changes in acetylcholine receptor clustering, abnormal preterminal accumulation of vesicles, and aberrant ultrastructure of nerve terminals in the motor endplates of prenatal type I spinal muscular atrophy samples. Fetuses predicted to develop milder type II disease had a similar appearance to controls. Postnatal muscle of type I spinal muscular atrophy patients showed persistence of the fetal subunit of acetylcholine receptors, suggesting a delay in maturation of neuromuscular junctions. We observed that pathology in the severe form of the disease starts in fetal development and that a defect in maintaining the initial innervation is an early finding of neuromuscular dysfunction. These results will improve our understanding of the spinal muscular atrophy pathogenesis and help to define targets for possible presymptomatic therapy for this disease.

Immunohistological and electrophysiological evidence that N-acetylaspartylglutamate is a co-transmitter at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction.

Immunohistochemical studies previously revealed the presence of the peptide transmitter N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG) in spinal motor neurons, axons and presumptive neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). At synapses in the central nervous system, NAAG has been shown to activate the type 3 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR3) and is inactivated by an extracellular peptidase, glutamate carboxypeptidase II. The present study tested the hypothesis that NAAG meets the criteria for classification as a co-transmitter at the vertebrate NMJ. Confocal microscopy confirmed the presence of NAAG immunoreactivity and extended the resolution of the peptide's location in the lizard (Anolis carolinensis) NMJ. NAAG was localised to a presynaptic region immediately adjacent to postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. NAAG was depleted by potassium-induced depolarisation and by electrical stimulation of motor axons. The NAAG receptor, mGluR3, was localised to the presynaptic terminal consistent with NAAG's demonstrated role as a regulator of synaptic release at central synapses. In contrast, glutamate receptors, type 2 metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR2) and N-methyl-d-aspartate, were closely associated with acetylcholine receptors in the postsynaptic membrane. Glutamate carboxypeptidase II, the NAAG-inactivating enzyme, was identified exclusively in perisynaptic glial cells. This localisation was confirmed by the loss of immunoreactivity when these cells were selectively eliminated. Finally, electrophysiological studies showed that exogenous NAAG inhibited evoked neurotransmitter release by activating a group II metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR2 or mGluR3). Collectively, these data support the conclusion that NAAG is a co-transmitter at the vertebrate NMJ.

ß-Catenin gain of function in muscles impairs neuromuscular junction formation.

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) formation requires proper interaction between motoneurons and muscle cells. ß-Catenin is required in muscle cells for NMJ formation. To understand underlying mechanisms, we investigated the effect of ß-catenin gain of function (GOF) on NMJ development. In HSA-ß-cat(flox(ex3)/+) mice, which express stable ß-catenin specifically in muscles, motor nerve terminals became extensively defasciculated and arborized. Ectopic muscles were observed in the diaphragm and were innervated by ectopic phrenic nerve branches. Moreover, extensive outgrowth and branching of spinal axons were evident in the GOF mice. These results indicate that increased ß-catenin in muscles alters presynaptic differentiation. Postsynaptically, AChR clusters in HSA-ß-cat(flox(ex3)/+) diaphragms were distributed in a wider region, suggesting that muscle ß-catenin GOF disrupted the signal that restricts AChR clustering to the middle region of muscle fibers. Expression of stable ß-catenin in motoneurons, however, had no effect on NMJ formation. These observations provide additional genetic evidence that pre- and postsynaptic development of the NMJ requires an intricate balance of ß-catenin activity in muscles.

Does bladder outlet obstruction alter the non-neuronal cholinergic system of the human urothelium?

AIMS: Alterations of the bladder sensory system are considered to contribute to detrusor overactivity (DO) when patients suffer from bladder outlet obstruction (BOO). The urothelium is one part of this sensory system and it harbors a non-neuronal cholinergic system (NNCS). We aimed to investigate if BOO causes alterations in the NNCS. MAIN METHODS: Urothelial specimens were collected by endoscopy from six male controls and eight male patients suffering from BOO and DO. The samples were examined by immunofluorescence (IF) and real-time RT-PCR for high-affinity choline transporter-1 (CHT1), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), organic cation transporters OCT1-3, muscarinic receptor (mAChR) subtypes M1-M5 and nicotinic receptor (nAChR) subunits α7, α9 and α10. KEY FINDINGS: ChAT, VAChT and OCT2 are not present in the male urothelium. Real-time RT-PCR and IF detected all other investigated targets. Rank order of expression was M2≫M3=M5>M4=M1 for mAChR subtypes and α7≫α10>α9 for nAChR subunits. Statistical analysis of RT-PCR results did not detect significant differences between patients and controls. Only IF detected differences between both groups: α9-Immunolabeling was increased in all BOO/DO patients. SIGNIFICANCE: BOO does not induce considerable alterations of the human urothelial NNCS on mRNA level. Expression of mAChRs, CHT1, OCT1 and OCT3 is not significantly affected by BOO. Thus, transport mechanisms for choline and acetylcholine (ACh) stay unaltered. BOO increases immunolabeling of α9-nAChR but whether this sole finding contributes to the onset of DO seems questionable. Comparing the present results with our previous work, the urothelial NNCS does not differ between men and women.

Cholinergic receptors in the murine oviduct: inventory and coupling to intracellular calcium concentration.

AIMS: In the oviduct, muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (MR) are linked with motility regulation and nicotinic receptors (nAChR) with ectopic pregnancy. We here aimed to determine the repertoire of cholinergic receptor expression in the murine oviduct and their functional coupling to regulation of intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)). MAIN METHODS: Cholinergic receptor transcripts were assessed by RT-PCR in oviductal segments (ampulla, isthmus, uterotubar junction) in all cyclic stages and pregnancy, and in laser-microdissected samples of epithelium and smooth muscle, nAChR subunit α3 distribution in tissue sections using an appropriate genetic reporter mouse strain. [Ca(2+)](i) responses were monitored in ciliated and non-ciliated oviductal cells isolated from wild-type and MR subtypes 1 and 3 gene deficient mice. KEY FINDINGS: Transcripts for all MR subtypes (M1-M5) are constantly expressed whereas there is some variability in nAChR expression from individual to individual. The qualitative expression pattern is independent from the hormonal status of the animal, except for nAChR α7, which is less present during pregnancy. The epithelium expresses M1, M3, nAChR α7 (data from laser-assisted microdissection) and nAChR α3 (ultrastructural investigation of reporter mice). MR dominate over nAChR in increasing [Ca(2+)](i) with being M3 the major, but not sole subtype driving this effect. The general nAChR inhibitor mecamylamine enhances muscarinic and purinergic responses. SIGNIFICANCE: In conclusion, the murine oviduct is endowed with a multiplicity of muscarinic and nicotinic receptors subtypes that, with respect to regulation of [Ca(2+)](i), are inversely linked to each other. The major, but not sole, cholinergic receptor driving increase in [Ca(2+)](i) is M3.

[Development of specific protein labeling method by using small molecular probes].

Selective protein labeling with a small molecular probe is a versatile method for elucidating protein functions in living cells. In this review, we report a new protein labeling method that enables selective covalent modification of a tag-fused protein with small functional molecules. This method utilizes the specific interaction and rapid reaction between a short peptide tag and a molecular probe, which comprises the cysteine-containing short CA6D4x2 tag (CAAAAAADDDDGDDDD) and a tetranuclear Zn(II)-DpaTyr probe containing a reactive α-chloroacetyl moiety. This labeling system, so-called reactive tag system, was successfully applied to the fluorescence imaging of tag-fused GPCRs such as bradykinin receptor (B2R) and acetylcholine receptor (m1AchR) expressing on HEK293 cells. The utility of this labeling method was demonstrated in the function analyses of GPCRs, such as fluorescence visualization of the stimuli-responsive internalization of GPCRs and pH change in endosomes containing the internalized GPCRs.

Novel mouse model reveals distinct activity-dependent and -independent contributions to synapse development.

The balanced action of both pre- and postsynaptic organizers regulates the formation of neuromuscular junctions (NMJ). The precise mechanisms that control the regional specialization of acetylcholine receptor (AChR) aggregation, guide ingrowing axons and contribute to correct synaptic patterning are unknown. Synaptic activity is of central importance and to understand synaptogenesis, it is necessary to distinguish between activity-dependent and activity-independent processes. By engineering a mutated fetal AChR subunit, we used homologous recombination to develop a mouse line that expresses AChR with massively reduced open probability during embryonic development. Through histological and immunochemical methods as well as electrophysiological techniques, we observed that endplate anatomy and distribution are severely aberrant and innervation patterns are completely disrupted. Nonetheless, in the absence of activity AChRs form postsynaptic specializations attracting motor axons and permitting generation of multiple nerve/muscle contacts on individual fibers. This process is not restricted to a specialized central zone of the diaphragm and proceeds throughout embryonic development. Phenotypes can be attributed to separate activity-dependent and -independent pathways. The correct patterning of synaptic connections, prevention of multiple contacts and control of nerve growth require AChR-mediated activity. In contrast, myotube survival and acetylcholine-mediated dispersal of AChRs are maintained even in the absence of AChR-mediated activity. Because mouse models in which acetylcholine is entirely absent do not display similar effects, we conclude that acetylcholine binding to the AChR initiates activity-dependent and activity-independent pathways whereby the AChR modulates formation of the NMJ.